The key issues are discussed in detail and, there is even a list of important things to watch out for. Trying to make decisions with only half the information can end up being quite costly. I hope you will find this article as helpful to you as it was for me.

Inexpensive hydrogen for automotive or jet fuel may be possible by mimicking photosynthesis, according to a Penn State materials chemist, but a number of problems need to be solved first.

“We are focused on the hardest way to make fuel,” said Thomas Mallouk, Evan Pugh Professor of Materials Chemistry and Physics. “We are creating an artificial system that mimics photosynthesis, but it will be practical only when it is as cheap as gasoline or jet fuel.”

Splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen can be done in a variety of ways, but most are heavily energy intensive. The resultant hydrogen, which can be used to fuel vehicles or converted into a variety of hydrocarbons, inevitably costs more than existing fossil-based fuels.

While some researchers have used solar cells to make electricity or use concentrated solar heat to split water, Mallouk’s process uses the energy in blue light directly. So far, it is much less efficient than other solar energy conversion technologies.

The key to direct conversion is electrons. Like the dyes that naturally occur in plants, inorganic dyes absorb sunlight and the energy kicks out an electron. Left on its own, the electron would recombine creating heat, but if the electrons can be channeled – molecule to molecule – far enough away from where they originate, the electrons can reach the catalyst and split the hydrogen from the oxygen in water.

“Currently, we are getting only 2 to 3 percent yield of hydrogen,” Mallouk told attendees on Feb. 19 at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. “For systems like this to be useful, we will need to get closer to 100 percent,” he added.

But recombination of electrons is not the only problem with the process. The oxygen-evolving end of the system is a chemical wrecking ball and this means the lifetime of the system is currently limited to a few hours.

“The oxygen side of the cell is making a strong oxidizing agent and the molecules near can be oxidized,” said Mallouk. “Natural photosynthesis has the same problem, but it has a self-repair mechanism that periodically replaces the oxygen-evolving complex and the protein molecules around it.”

So far, the researchers do not have a fix for the oxidation, so their catalysts and other molecules used in the cell structure eventually degrade, limiting the life of the solar fuel cell.

Currently, the researchers are using only blue light, but would like to use the entire visible spectrum from the sun. They are also using expensive components – a titanium oxide electrode, a platinum dark electrode and iridium oxide catalyst. Substitutions for these are necessary, and other researchers are working on solutions. A Massachusetts Institute of Technology group is investigating cobalt and nickel catalysts, and at Yale University and Princeton University they are investigating manganese.

“Cobalt and nickel don’t work as well as iridium, but they aren’t bad,” said Mallouk. “The cobalt work is spreading to other institutions as well.”

While the designed structure of the fuel cell directs many of the electrons to the catalyst, most of them still recombine, giving over their energy to heat rather than chemical bond breaking. The manganese catalysts in photosystem II – the photosynthesis system by which plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria evolve oxygen — are just as slow as ours, said Mallouk. Photosystem II works efficiently by using an electron mediator molecule to make sure there is always an electron available for the dye molecule once it passes its current electron to the next molecule in the chain.

“We could slow down major recombination in the artificial system in the same way,” said Mallouk. “Electron transfer from the mediator to the dye would effectively outrun the recombination reaction.”

Currently the system uses only one photon at a time, but a two-photon system, while more complicated, would be more effective in using the full spectrum of sunlight.

Mallouk’s main goal now is to track all the energy pathways in his cell to understand the kinetics. Once he knows this, he can model the cells and adjust portions to decrease energy loss and increase efficiency.

Penn State (2011, February 20). Mimicking photosynthesis path to solar-derived hydrogen fuel. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 10, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2011/02/110219165217.htm

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The Original Post is Located Here: Mimicking Photosynthesis Path to Solar-Derived Hydrogen Fuel

‘Tall Order’ Sunlight-to-Hydrogen System Works, Neutron Analysis Confirms

Researchers at the Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory have developed a biohybrid photoconversion system – based on the interaction of photosynthetic plant proteins with synthetic polymers – that can convert visible light into hydrogen fuel.

Photosynthesis, the natural process carried out by plants, algae and some bacterial species, converts sunlight energy into chemical energy and sustains much of the life on earth. Researchers have long sought inspiration from photosynthesis to develop new materials to harness the sun’s energy for electricity and fuel production.

In a step toward synthetic solar conversion systems, the ORNL researchers have demonstrated and confirmed with small-angle neutron scattering analysis that light harvesting complex II (LHC-II) proteins can self-assemble with polymers into a synthetic membrane structure and produce hydrogen.

The researchers envision energy-producing photoconversion systems similar to photovoltaic cells that generate hydrogen fuel, comparable to the way plants and other photosynthetic organisms convert light to energy.

Neutron scattering analysis performed at DOE's Oak Ridge National Laboratory reveals the lamellar structure of a hydrogen-producing, biohybrid composite material formed by the self-assembly of naturally occurring, light harvesting proteins with polymers. (Credit: Image courtesy of DOE/Oak Ridge National Laboratory)

“Making a, self-repairing synthetic photoconversion system is a pretty tall order. The ability to control structure and order in these materials for self-repair is of interest because, as the system degrades, it loses its effectiveness,” ORNL researcher Hugh O’Neill, of the lab’s Center for Structural Molecular Biology, said.

“This is the first example of a protein altering the phase behavior of a synthetic polymer that we have found in the literature. This finding could be exploited for the introduction of self-repair mechanisms in future solar conversion systems,” he said.

Small angle neutron scattering analysis performed at ORNL’s High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) showed that the LHC-II, when introduced into a liquid environment that contained polymers, interacted with polymers to form lamellar sheets similar to those found in natural photosynthetic membranes.

The ability of LHC-II to force the assembly of structural polymers into an ordered, layered state — instead of languishing in an ineffectual mush — could make possible the development of biohybrid photoconversion systems. These systems would consist of high surface area, light-collecting panes that use the proteins combined with a catalyst such as platinum to convert the sunlight into hydrogen, which could be used for fuel.

The research builds on previous ORNL investigations into the energy-conversion capabilities of platinized photosystem I complexes — and how synthetic systems based on plant biochemistry can become part of the solution to the global energy challenge.

“We’re building on the photosynthesis research to explore the development of self-assembly in biohybrid systems. The neutron studies give us direct evidence that this is occurring,” O’Neill said.

The researchers confirmed the proteins’ structural behavior through analysis with HFIR’s Bio-SANS, a small-angle neutron scattering instrument specifically designed for analysis of biomolecular materials.

“Cold source” neutrons, in which energy is removed by passing them through cryogenically chilled hydrogen, are ideal for studying the molecular structures of biological tissue and polymers.

The LHC-II protein for the experiment was derived from a simple source: spinach procured from a local produce section, then processed to separate the LHC-II proteins from other cellular components. Eventually, the protein could be synthetically produced and optimized to respond to light.

O’Neill said the primary role of the LHC-II protein is as a solar collector, absorbing sunlight and transferring it to the photosynthetic reaction centers, maximizing their output. “However, this study shows that LHC-II can also carry out electron transfer reactions, a role not known to occur in vivo,” he said.

The research team, which came from various laboratory organizations including its Chemical Sciences Division, Neutron Scattering Sciences Division, the Center for Structural Molecular Biology and the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, consisted of O’Neill, William T. Heller, and Kunlun Hong, all of ORNL; Dimitry Smolensky of the University of Tennessee; and Mateus Cardoso, a former postdoctoral researcher at ORNL now of the Laboratio Nacional de Luz Sincrotron in Brazil.

“That’s one of the nice things about working at a national laboratory. Expertise is available from a variety of organizations,” O’Neill said.

The work, published in the journal Energy & Environmental Science, was supported with Laboratory-Directed Research and Development funding. HFIR is supported by the DOE Office of Science.

DOE/Oak Ridge National Laboratory (2011, February 3). ‘Tall order’ sunlight-to-hydrogen system works, neutron analysis confirms. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 03, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2011/02/110203152544.htm

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The Original Post is Located Here: Sunlight-to-Hydrogen System Works

Biofuels. What a great name! It just sounds green. Looking around I see a proliferation of Biodiesel bumper stickers everywhere I look. In my home state of Oregon all filling stations will be required to add at least 10 % ethanol to all gasoline by next year. Environmentalists are cheering as politicians and the media are jumping onto the Biofuel bandwagon. Sounds like a big win for the environment and society – think again, in reality Biofuels are much more brown than they are green.

Here are five reasons why Biofuels may actually be harmful for the environment:

1. Biofuels are so profitable that rain forest, the most efficient absorber of greenhouse gases, is being cut or burned to grow grains and sugarcane to make ethanol or Biodiesel.
2. Farmers growing highly profitable Biofuel crops are looking for the fastest growth and biggest yields and use heavy amounts of chemical fertilizer; which strips key micronutrients out of our increasingly scarce topsoil, and the nitrogen-rich runoff causes massive algae growth that destroys our streams, rivers and lakes.
3. Because Biofuels are more profitable than food crops large amounts of prime farmland is being devoted to Biofuel production creating grain shortages and increasing the price of grain products, especially in third world countries.
4. Although Biofuels emit less greenhouse gases per gallon than petroleum fuels they still emit significant amounts. Biofuels are also less fuel-efficient. In my vehicle mileage drops substantially when I use a fuel containing ethanol. So, overall Biofuels do not reduce greenhouse emissions nearly as much as claim.
5. This is perhaps the most important reason. To permanently solve both the energy crisis and eliminate greenhouse gas emissions we will have to move away from consumable fuels to toward energy sources that do not consume fuel, emit heat or produce pollutants. At the moment electricity is the cleanest energy source available and companies are beginning to develop and produce powerful electric cars that can go a few hundred miles on a charge. For these vehicles to be practical we will need to establish charging stations in every town and alongside every highway. This requires a massive transition from filling stations to charging stations. The use of Biofuels will perpetuate the existing infrastructure of filling stations and delay the transition to charging stations. The longer we delay this transition the more greenhouse gases will be released into our atmosphere.

At this point some of you might be wondering why our political leadership and big business is so supportive of Biofuels – yet they never even mention electric vehicles. It might be worth your time to see the movie “Who Killed the Electric Car”, which is available on DVD. Click Here to go to their website.

To begin with most big grain producers are large corporate farms with a strong lobbying presence in Washington and a history of making campaign contributions to politicians that support their agendas. Biofuels are big business for these companies.

The auto industry also is heavily involved in politics, lobbying efforts, and campaign contributions. These companies have a big investment in continuing to make internal combustion engines that burn fuels. Moving to electric motors will require major retrofitting for these companies. Biofuels allow them to avoid making this investment.

The petroleum industry has perhaps the most to gain from the implementation of Biofuels. They know that the public will eventually demand a move away from petroleum. All the other solutions will take business away from them. However, they will be refining and distributing Biofuels just like they do with petroleum – and crude Biofuels are cheaper too. So, the petroleum industry stands to make a great deal of money from the distribution of Biofuels.

The petroleum industry makes huge campaign contributions to certain politicians. They have been successful at having many of their supporters and former executives elected and appointed to the highest levels of power in our current administration. It is not surprising that our political leaders are embracing Biofuels.

The solution to both the energy crisis and pollution is to transition to non-consumable fuels. This means solar, geothermal, wind and tidal energy production of electricity. Even nuclear energy could be a viable alternative if spent fuel can be safely transported out of the Earth’s atmosphere using the low-cost rocket technologies recently developed. All of these kinds of energy production are already in use and are becoming cheaper and more efficient every day. We have not yet begun to see the economies of scale and innovation that will make this kind of energy production much cheaper the more that it is developed and used.

At this very moment several companies are planning massive solar energy installations in Arizona, which is beginning to be called the Silicon Valley or Middle East of Solar energy production. Huge wind farms are being planned for the Plains states. We could be only years away from a massive transition to electric vehicles. For this to be successful we need to get big business and our political leadership to focus on this transition. This will take a lot longer if we allow them to remain focused on Biofuels instead.

When comparing non-consumable energy sources to fuel based energy production remember that all fuels must be transported to where they are sold. The transportation of fuels burns more fuel – so these transportation costs must be figured into the numbers used for greenhouse gas emissions and energy efficiency. Distribution of electricity does involve some energy loss, but it is fractional compared to how much energy is used to transport fuel and does not emit greenhouse gases.

Some of you might be wondering why I have not mentioned hydrogen fuel cells. There are three reasons why: 1. Hydrogen combustion still produces heat, 2. Our engineers still have not figured out how to produce hydrogen without using large amounts of energy to do it, and 3. The other renewal energy sources mentioned earlier have already moved beyond the experimental stage and are in real-world use.

On the Bright Future website we offer a comprehensive discussion about energy and climate. Check out our radio show: Click Understanding Climate Change on the Listen page. On our panel for this discussion is Greg Jones, a distinguished climate scientist from Southern Oregon University. This discussion reveals some of the complexities of properly addressing Climate Change.

The Original Post is Located Here: The Great Biofuel Hoax of 2008 – Energy Policy and Climate Change

Clean Hydrogen Power

Don’t get too attached to gas powered vehicles. A new hydrogen fuel station, the first of its kind on the East coast, opened for business, Monday.

Drivers in the United States spend more than $25 billion annually on oil from foreign countries. Now new hydrogen stations in South Carolina could eliminate the U.S.’s dependency and help the environment.

The fueling station at Sage Mill Industrial Park is the first of its kind within thousands of miles, but it will soon have lots of company as officials unveiled the start of the South Carolina “Hydrogen Freeway.”

“We are helping to start the United States on getting off of foreign oil, because there are people in other countries who don’t like us very much and want to hurt us and we’re sending them billions of dollars every year,” says South Carolina Speaker of the House, Bobby Harrell.

State leaders say the plan is to connect South Carolina to California with a stretch of hydrogen stations.

With hydrogen powered cars on the roads, the United States is closer to energy independence while helping the environment at the same time.

“A hydrogen fuel cell only puts out water and a little bit of heat and that’s all you have,” says Shannon Baxter-Clemmons of the South Carolina Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Alliance.

Hydrogen powered vehicles would completely eliminate pollution caused by exhaust from cars, but it does have its drawbacks. Currently, there are only a handful of hydrogen fuel stations in the country and just as few vehicles. Supporters of hydrogen are telling critics to give it time.

“There aren’t a lot of hydrogen fueling stations today just like there weren’t a lot of railroad tracks when the railroads started, but we are on the cutting edge of making those things happen,” said Harrell

Harrell says, as hydrogen use expands, so will South Carolina’s economy. He says hydrogen will boost business growth and incomes.

Currently, you can only lease hydrogen powered vehicles from certain automakers.

Officials expect the first mass production of hydrogen powered vehicles to roll off the assembly line by 2015. By 2020, they say fueling stations will be as common as gas stations.
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The Original Post is Located Here: South Carolina gets hydrogen power

Biomass Pellets

Tomorrow our vehicles may derive power by enzymes. These enzymes may originate from the cellulose of woodchips or grass and instead of emitting poisonous gases they will exhale hydrogen. We know that when hydrogen is burned, the only emission it makes is water vapor, so a key benefit of hydrogen fuel is that when burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) is not produced. Clearly, hydrogen is less of a pollutant in the air because it omits little tail pipe pollution. Hydrogen also has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with better effectiveness over an internal combustion engine.

A team of scientists from Virginia Tech, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and the University of Georgia says it has successfully generated hydrogen gas. Normally these kinds of fuels are derived from starch. Jonathan Mielenz, who is the leader of the Bioconversion Science and Technology Group at ORNL, says, “It is exciting because using cellulose instead of starch expands the renewable resource for producing hydrogen to include biomass.”

This hydrogen gas is clean enough to power a fuel cell by combining 14 enzymes, one coenzyme, cellulosic materials from non-eatable sources, and water heated to about 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 C). The researchers utilized cellulosic materials which is isolated from wood chips. But researches also claim that crop waste or switchgrass could also be used for this purpose. These research outcomes are being published in ChemSusChem. The research is supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research; Zhang’s DuPont Young Professor Award, and the U.S. Department of Energy.

Percival Zhang who is assistant professor of biological systems engineering in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Virginia Tech, states, “In addition to converting the chemical energy from the sugar, the process also converts the low-temperature thermal energy into high-quality hydrogen energy – like Prometheus stealing fire.” This group declares the benefits of their “one pot” process. The first advantage is they are using a unique combination of enzymes. The second advantage is that hydrogen generation rate is as fast as natural hydrogen fermentation. The third advantage is the chemical energy output is greater than the chemical energy stored in sugars. The maximum hydrogen yield is produced from the cellulosic materials.

Percival Zhang said that if we can utilize a small fraction (two or three percent) of annual biomass production (at global level) for sugar-to-hydrogen fuel cells for transportation, it can lead us to transformational fuel independence. For U.S.A. the figure varies a bit. If U.S. wants to get rid of fossil fuels from transport they actually need to convert about 10 percent of biomass – which would be 1.3 billion tons of usable biomass.
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The Original Post is Located Here: Hydrogen Fuel From Non-food Sources

DaimlerChrysler Necar 5

Methanol (CH3OH), also known as wood alcohol, is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Methanol is basically methane with its hydrogen molecule replaced by a hydroxyl radical (OH).

Although a variety of feedstocks can be used to create methanol, today’s economics favour the use of natural gas. The methanol is then produced by steam reforming natural gas to create a synthesis gas, which is then fed into a reactor vessel in the presence of a catalyst. This process will produce methanol and water vapor.

Methanol has similar chemical and physical characteristics as ethanol, when used as a combustion engine fuel.

Methanol can also be used to make methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), an oxygenate that when blended with gasoline enhances the octane and creates a cleaner burning fuel. MTBE production and use has declined in recent years because it has been found to contaminate ground water.

Methanol’s physical and chemical characteristics do offer several advantages as an alternative fuel, such as a relatively low production cost and a lower risk of flammability compared to gasoline.

However, the use of methanol has dramatically declined since the early 1990s, and auto makers are no longer manufacturing vehicles that run on it.

On the flip side, methanol can be made into hydrogen and researchers are currently looking at ways to overcome the barriers to using methanol as a hydrogen fuel source for future fuel cell vehicles.
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The Original Post is Located Here: Methanol as an Alternative Fuel